del` ins` Lojban (pronounceddel` ins` “ LOZH-bahn ” ) is a constructed language. Previous versions of the language were calleddel` ins` “ Loglan ” del` ins` by Dr. James Cooke Brown, who founded the Loglan Project and started the development of the language in 1955. The goals for the language were first described in the open literature in the articledel` ins` “ Loglan ”, published indel` ins` Scientific American , June, 1960. Made well-known by that article and by occasional references in science fiction (most notably in Robert Heinlein's noveldel` ins` The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress ) and computer publications, Loglan and Lojban have been built over four decades by dozens of workers and hundreds of supporters, led since 1987 by The Logical Language Group (who are the publishers of this book).

del` ins` There are thousands of artificial languages (of which Esperanto is the best-known), but Loglan/Lojban has been engineered to make it unique in several ways. The following are the main features of Lojban:

del` ins` This book is what is called adel` ins` “ reference grammar ” . It attempts to expound the whole Lojban language, or at least as much of it as is understood at present. Lojban is a rich language with many features, and an attempt has been made to discover the functions of those features. The worddel` ins` “ discover ” del` ins` is used advisedly; Lojban was notdel` ins` “ invented ” del` ins` by any one person or committee. Often, grammatical features were introduced into the language long before their usage was fully understood. Sometimes they were introduced for one reason, only to prove more useful for other reasons not recognized at the time.

By intention, this book is complete in description but not in explanation. For every rule in the formal Lojban grammar (given indel` ins` Chapter 21 ), there is a bit of explanation and an example somewhere in the book, and often a great deal more than a bit. In essence,del` ins` Chapter 2 del` ins` gives a brief overview of the language,del` ins` Chapter 21 del` ins` gives the formal structure of the language, and the chapters in between put semantic flesh on those formal bones. I hope that eventually more grammatical material founded on (or even correcting) the explanations in this book will become available.

del` ins` Nevertheless, the publication of this book is, in one sense, the completion of a long period of language evolution. With the exception of a possible revision of the language that will not even be considered until five years from publication date, and any revisions of this book needed to correct outright errors, the language described in this book will not be changing by deliberate act of its creators any more. Instead, language change will take place in the form of new vocabulary – Lojban does not yet have nearly the vocabulary it needs to be a fully usable language of the modern world, asdel` ins` Chapter 12 del` ins` explains – and through the irregular natural processes of drift and (who knows?) native-speaker evolution. (Teach your children Lojban!) You can learn the language described here with assurance that (unlike previous versions of Lojban and Loglan, as well as most other artificial languages) it will not be subject to further fiddling by language-meisters.

del` ins` It is probably worth mentioning that this book was written somewhat piecemeal. Each chapter began life as an explication of a specific Lojban topic; only later did these begin to clump together into a larger structure of words and ideas. Therefore, there are perhaps not as many cross-references as there should be. However, I have attempted to make the index as comprehensive as possible.

del` ins` Each chapter has a descriptive title, often involving some play on words; this is an attempt to make the chapters more memorable. The title ofdel` ins` Chapter 1 del` ins` (which you are now reading), for example, is an allusion to the bookdel` ins` English As We Speak It In Ireland , by P. W. Joyce, which is a sort of informal reference grammar of Hiberno-English.del` ins` “ Lojbanistan ” del` ins` is both an imaginary country where Lojban is the native language, and a term for the actual community of Lojban-speakers, scattered over the world. Whydel` ins` “ mangle ” ? As yet, nobody in the real Lojbanistan speaks the language at all well, by the standards of the imaginary Lojbanistan; that is one of the circumstances this book is meant to help remedy.

Each chapter is broken into numbered sections; each section contains a mixture of expository text, numbered examples, and possibly tables.

del` ins` The reader will notice a certain similarity in the examples used throughout the book. One chapter after another rings the changes on the self-same sentences:

del` ins` will become wearisomely familiar beforedel` ins` Chapter 21 del` ins` is reached. This method is deliberate; I have tried to use simple and (eventually) familiar examples wherever possible, to avoid obscuring new grammatical points with new vocabulary. Of course, this is not the method of a textbook, but this book is not a textbook (although people have learned Lojban from it and its predecessors). Rather, it is intended both for self-learning (of course, at present would-be Lojban teachers must be self-learners) and to serve as a reference in the usual sense, for looking up obscure points about the language.

del` ins` It is useful to talk further aboutdel` ins` Example 1.1 del` ins` for what it illustrates about examples in this book. Examples usually occupy three lines. The first of these is in Lojban (in italics), the second in a word-by-word literal translation of the Lojban into English (in boldface), and the third in colloquial English. The second and third lines are sometimes called thedel` ins` “ literal translation ” del` ins` and thedel` ins` “ colloquial translation ” del` ins` respectively. Sometimes, when clarity is not sacrificed thereby, one or both are omitted. If there is more than one Lojban sentence, it generally means that they have the same meaning.

del` ins` Words are sometimes surrounded by square brackets. In Lojban texts, these enclose optional grammatical particles that may (in the context of the particular example) be either omitted or included. In literal translations, they enclose words that are used as conventional translations of specific Lojban words, but don't have exactly the meanings or uses that the English word would suggest. Indel` ins` Chapter 3 , square brackets surround phonetic representations in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

del` ins` Many of the tables, especially those placed at the head of various sections, are in three columns. The first column contains Lojban words discussed in that section; the second column contains the grammatical category (represented by an UPPER CASE Lojban word) to which the word belongs, and the third column contains a brief English gloss, not necessarily or typically a full explanation. Other tables are explained in context.

del` ins` A few Lojban words are used in this book as technical terms. All of these are explained indel` ins` Chapter 2 , except for a few used only in single chapters, which are explained in the introductory sections of those chapters.

del` ins` It is necessary to add, alas, that the examples used in this book do not refer to any existing person, place, or institution, and that any such resemblance is entirely coincidental and unintentional, and not intended to give offense.del` ins`

del` ins` When definitions and place structures of gismu, and especially of lujvo, are given in this book, they may differ from those given in the English-Lojban dictionary (which, as of this writing, is not yet published). If so, the information given in the dictionary supersedes whatever is given here.

del` ins` Although the bulk of this book was written for the Logical Language Group (LLG) by John Cowan, who is represented by the occasional authorialdel` ins` “ I ” , certain chapters were first written by others and then heavily edited by me to fit into this book.

del` ins` In particular:del` ins` Chapter 2 del` ins` is a fusion of originally separate documents, one by Athelstan, and one by Nora Tansky LeChevalier and Bob LeChevalier;del` ins` Chapter 3 del` ins` anddel` ins` Chapter 4 del` ins` were originally written by Bob LeChevalier with contributions by Chuck Barton;del` ins` Chapter 12 del` ins` was originally written (in much longer form) by Nick Nicholas; the dialogue near the end ofdel` ins` Chapter 13 del` ins` was contributed by Nora Tansky LeChevalier;del` ins` Chapter 15 del` ins` and parts ofdel` ins` Chapter 16 del` ins` were originally by Bob LeChevalierdel`; and the YACC grammar in del`Chapter 21 del` is the work of several hands, but is primarily by Bob LeChevalier and Jeff Taylor. The BNF grammar, which is also indel` ins` Chapter 21 , was originally written by me, then rewritten by Clark Nelson, and finally touched up by me again.

del` ins` The research into natural languages from which parts ofdel` ins` Chapter 5 del` ins` draw their material was performed by Ivan Derzhanski. LLG acknowledges his kind permission to use the fruits of his research.

del` ins` The pictures in this book were drawn by Nora Tansky LeChevalier, except for the picture appearing indel` ins` Chapter 4 , which is by Sylvia Rutiser Rissell.

The index was made by Nora Tansky LeChevalier.

del` ins` I would like to thank the following people for their detailed reviews, suggestions, comments, and early detection of my embarrassing errors in Lojban, logic, English, and cross-references: Nick Nicholas, Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, Jorge Llambias, Iain Alexander, Paulo S. L. M. Barreto, Robert J. Chassell, Gale Cowan, Karen Stein, Ivan Derzhanski, Jim Carter, Irene Gates, Bob LeChevalier, John Parks-Clifford (also known asdel` ins` “ pc ” ), and Nora Tansky LeChevalier.

Nick Nicholas (NSN) would like to thank the following Lojbanists: Mark Shoulson, Veijo Vilva, Colin Fine, And Rosta, and Iain Alexander for their suggestions and comments; John Cowan, for his extensive comments, his exemplary trailblazing of Lojban grammar, and for solving thedel` ins` manskapi del` ins` dilemma for NSN; Jorge Llambias, for his even more extensive comments, and for forcing NSN to think more than he was inclined to; Bob LeChevalier, for his skeptical overview of the issue, his encouragement, and for scouring all Lojban text his computer has been burdened with for lujvo; Nora Tansky LeChevalier, for writing the program converting old rafsi text to new rafsi text, and sparing NSN from embarrassing errors; and Jim Carter, for his dogged persistence in analyzing lujvo algorithmically, which inspired this research, and for first identifying the three lujvo classes.

del` ins` Of course, the entire Loglan Project owes a considerable debt to James Cooke Brown as the language inventor, and also to several earlier contributors to the development of the language. Especially noteworthy are Doug Landauer, Jeff Prothero, Scott Layson, Jeff Taylor, and Bob McIvor. Final responsibility for the remaining errors and infelicities is solely mine.

del` ins` The founding document for the Loglan Project, of which this book is one of the products, isdel` ins` Loglan 1: A Logical Language del` ins` by James Cooke Brown (4th ed. 1989, The Loglan Institute, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.). The language described therein is not Lojban, but is very close to it and may be considered an ancestral version. It is regrettably necessary to state that nothing in this book has been approved by Dr. Brown, and that the very existence of Lojban is disapproved of by him.

The logic of Lojban, such as it is, owes a good deal to the American philosopher W. v.O. Quine, especiallydel` ins` Word and Object del` ins` (1960, M.I.T. Press). Much of Quine's philosophical writings, especially on observation sentences, reads like a literal translation from Lojban.

The theory of negation expounded indel` ins` Chapter 15 del` ins` is derived from a reading of Laurence Horn's workdel` ins` A Natural History of Negation .

Of course, neither Brown nor Quine nor Horn is in any way responsible for the uses or misuses I have made of their works.

del` ins` Depending on just when you are reading this book, there may be three other books about Lojban available: a textbook, a Lojban/English dictionary, and a book containing general information about Lojban. You can probably get these books, if they have been published, from the same place where you got this book. In addition, other books not yet foreseen may also exist.

The following examples list the Lojban caption, with a translation, for the picture at the head of each chapter. If a chapter's picture has no caption,del` ins` “ (none) ” del` ins` is specified instead.

Copyright © 1997 by The Logical Language Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this book, either in electronic or in printed form, provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this book, provided that the modifications are clearly marked as such, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this book into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice may be stated in a translation that has been approved by the Logical Language Group, rather than in English.

The contents ofdel` ins` Chapter 21 del` ins` are in the public domain.

For information, contact: The Logical Language Group, 2904 Beau Lane, Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA. Telephone: 703-385-0273. Email address:del` ins` llg-board@lojban.org . Web Address: http://www.lojban.org .

del` ins` This chapter gives diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in this chapter, but covered in detail in later chapters, so this chapter is adel` ins` “ quick tour ” del` ins` of the material later covered more slowly throughout the book. It also introduces most of the Lojban words used to discuss Lojban grammar.

Let us consider John and Sam and three statements about them:

del` ins` These examples all describe relationships between John and Sam. However, in English, we use the noundel` ins` “ father ” del` ins` to describe a static relationship indel` ins` Example 2.1 ,del` ins` the verbdel` ins` “ hits ” del` ins` to describe an active relationship indel` ins` Example 2.2 ,del` ins` and the adjectivedel` ins` “ taller ” del` ins` to describe an attributive relationship indel` ins` Example 2.3 . In Lojban we make no such grammatical distinctions; these three sentences, when expressed in Lojban, are structurally identical. The same part of speech is used to represent the relationship. In formal logic this whole structure is called adel` ins` “ predication ” ;del` ins` in Lojban it is called adel` ins` bridi ,del` ins` and the central part of speech is thedel` ins` selbri . Logicians refer to the things thus related asdel` ins` “ arguments ” ,del` ins` while Lojbanists call themdel` ins` sumti . These Lojban terms will be used for the rest of the book.

del`ins`

del` ins` In a relationship, there are a definite number of things being related. In English, for example,del` ins` “ give ” del` ins` has three places: the donor, the recipient and the gift. For example:

and

mean two different things because the relative positions ofdel` ins` “ John ” del` ins` anddel` ins` “ Sam ” del` ins` have been switched. Further,

seems strange to us merely because the places are being filled by unorthodox arguments. The relationship expressed bydel` ins` “ give ” del` ins` has not changed.

del` ins` In Lojban, each selbri has a specified number and type of arguments, known collectively as itsdel` ins` “ place structure ” . The simplest kind of selbri consists of a single root word, called adel` ins` gismu ,del` ins` and the definition in a dictionary gives the place structure explicitly. The primary task of constructing a Lojban sentence, after choosing the relationship itself, is deciding what you will use to fill in the sumti places.

This book uses the Lojban termsdel` ins` bridi ,del` ins` sumti ,del` ins` anddel` ins` selbri ,del` ins` because it is best to come to understand them independently of the English associations of the corresponding words, which are only roughly similar in meaning anyhow.

del` ins` The Lojban examples in this chapter (but not in the rest of the book) use boldface (as well as the usual italics) for selbri, to help you to tell them apart.

del` ins` Detailed pronunciation and spelling rules are given indel` ins` Chapter 3 , but what follows will keep the reader from going too far astray while digesting this chapter.

del` ins` Lojban has six recognized vowels:del` ins` a ,del` ins` e ,del` ins` i ,del` ins` o ,del` ins` u del` ins` anddel` ins` y . The first five are roughly pronounced asdel` ins` “ a ” del` ins` as indel` ins` “ father ” ,del` ins` e del` ins` as indel` ins` “ let ” ,del` ins` i del` ins` as indel` ins` “ machine ” ,del` ins` o del` ins` as indel` ins` “ dome ” del` ins` anddel` ins` u del` ins` as indel` ins` “ flute ” .del` ins` y del` ins` is pronounced as the sound calleddel` ins` “ schwa ” ,del` ins` that is, as the unstresseddel` ins` “ a ” del` ins` as indel` ins` “ about ” del` ins` ordel` ins` “ around ” .

del` ins` Twelve consonants in Lojban are pronounced more or less as their counterparts are in English:del` ins` b ,del` ins` d ,del` ins` f ,del` ins` k ,del` ins` l ,del` ins` m ,del` ins` n ,del` ins` p ,del` ins` r ,del` ins` t ,del` ins` v del` ins` anddel` ins` z . The letterdel` ins` c ,del` ins` on the other hand is pronounced as thedel` ins` “ sh ” del` ins` indel` ins` “ hush ” ,del` ins` whiledel` ins` j del` ins` is its voiced counterpart, the sound of thedel` ins` “ s ” del` ins` indel` ins` “ pleasure ” .del` ins` g del` ins` is always pronounced as it is indel` ins` “ gift ” ,del` ins` never as indel` ins` “ giant ” .del` ins` s del` ins` is as indel` ins` “ sell ” ,del` ins` never as indel` ins` “ rose ” . The sound ofdel` ins` x del` ins` is not found in English in normal words. It is found asdel` ins` “ ch ” del` ins` in Scottishdel` ins` “ loch ” ,del` ins` asdel` ins` “ j ” del` ins` in Spanishdel` ins` “ junta ” ,del` ins` and asdel` ins` „ ch “ del` ins` in Germandel` ins` „ Bach “ ;del` ins` it also appears in the English interjectiondel` ins` “ yecchh! ” . It gets easier to say as you practice it. The letterdel` ins` r del` ins` can be trilled, but doesn't have to be.

del` ins` The Lojban diphthongsdel` ins` ai ,del` ins` ei ,del` ins` oi ,del` ins` anddel` ins` au del` ins` are pronounced much as in the English wordsdel` ins` “ sigh ” ,del` ins` “ say ” ,del` ins` “ boy ” ,del` ins` anddel` ins` “ how ” . Other Lojban diphthongs begin with andel` ins` i del` ins` pronounced like Englishdel` ins` “ y ” del` ins` (for example,del` ins` io del` ins` is pronounceddel` ins` “ yo ” ) or else with adel` ins` u del` ins` pronounced like Englishdel` ins` “ w ” del` ins` (for example,del` ins` ua del` ins` is pronounceddel` ins` “ wa ” ).

del` ins` Lojban also has threedel` ins` “ semi-letters ” del`: ins`; the period, the comma and the apostrophe. The period represents a glottal stop or a pause; it is a required stoppage of the flow of air in the speech stream. The apostrophe sounds just like the English letterdel` ins` “ h ” . Unlike a regular consonant, it is not found at the beginning or end of a word, nor is it found adjacent to a consonant; it is only found between two vowels. The comma has no sound associated with it, and is used to separate syllables that might ordinarily run together. It is not used in this chapter.

del` ins` Stress falls on the next to the last syllable of all words, unless that vowel isdel` ins` y ,del` ins` which is never stressed; in such words the third-to-last syllable is stressed. If a word only has one syllable, then that syllable is not stressed.

All Lojban words are pronounced as they are spelled: there are no silent letters.

del` ins` Here is a short table of single words used as sumti. This table provides examples only, not the entire set of such words, which may be found indel` ins` Section 7.16 .

Lojban sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added by methods that are beyond the scope of this chapter.

del` ins` The cmavodel` ins` ti ,del` ins` ta ,del` ins` anddel` ins` tu del` ins` refer to whatever the speaker is pointing at, and should not be used to refer to things that cannot in principle be pointed at.

del` ins` Names may also be used as sumti, provided they are preceded with the worddel` ins` la :

Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other languages, and there are restrictions on which letters may appear in Lojban names: seedel` ins` Section 6.12 del` ins` for more information.

del` ins` Here is a short table of some words used as Lojban selbri in this chapter:del` ins`

del` ins` Each selbri (relation) has a specific rule that defines the role of each sumti in the bridi, based on its position. In the table above, that order was expressed by labeling the sumti positions as del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 , del`x2ins`x _ins`ins`2 , del`x3ins`x _ins`ins`3 , del`x4ins`x _ins`ins`4 , and del`x5ins`x _ins`ins`5 .

del` ins` Like the table indel` ins` Section 2.3 ,del` ins` this table is far from complete: in fact, no complete table can exist, because Lojban allows new words to be created (in specified ways) whenever a speaker or writer finds the existing supply of words inadequate. This notion is a basic difference between Lojban (and some other languages such as German and Chinese) and English; in English, most people are very leery of using words thatdel` ins` “ aren't in the dictionary ” . Lojbanists are encouraged to invent new words; doing so is a major way of participating in the development of the language.del` ins` Chapter 4 del` ins` explains how to make new words, anddel` ins` Chapter 12 del` ins` explains how to give them appropriate meanings.

del` ins` Let's look at a simple Lojban bridi. The place structure of the gismudel` ins` tavla del` ins` is

where thedel` ins` “ x ” del` ins` es with following numbers represent the various arguments that could be inserted at the given positions in the English sentence. For example:

del` ins` hasdel` ins` “ John ” del` ins` in the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 place,del` ins` “ Sam ” del` ins` in the del`x2ins`x _ins`ins`2 place,del` ins` “ engineering ” del` ins` in the del`x3ins`x _ins`ins`3 place, anddel` ins` “ Lojban ” del` ins` in the del`x4ins`x _ins`ins`4 place, and could be paraphrased:

The Lojban bridi corresponding todel` ins` Example 2.7 del` ins` will have the form

del` ins` The worddel` ins` cu del` ins` serves as a separator between any preceding sumti and the selbri. It can often be omitted, as in the following examples.

(ins`In Example 2.13 ins` the ins`word ins`ins`ins`ly. is a del`bitins`so-called del`unusual,ins`letteral del`asins`for del`thereins`the del`isins`Lojban del`noins`letter ins`“ ins`l ins`” ins` and del`easy wayins`refers to del`pointins`something del`toins`labelled ins`“ ins`l ins`” ins`, most del`a language; one might point to a copy of this book, and hopeins`likely the del`meaningins`language ins`“ ins`Lojban ins`” ins` as del`getsins`its del`across!ins`first letter is ins`“ ins`l ins`” )ins`.

del` ins` When there are one or more occurrences of the cmavodel` ins` zo'e del` ins` at the end of a bridi, they may be omitted, a process calleddel` ins` “ ellipsis ” .del` ins` Example 2.11 del` ins` anddel` ins` Example 2.12 del` ins` may be expressed thus:

Note thatdel` ins` Example 2.13 del` ins` is not subject to ellipsis by this direct method, as thedel` ins` zo'e del` ins` in it is not at the end of the bridi.

del` ins` Consider the sentencedel` ins`

Example 2.16 del` ins` has one sumti (the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 ) before the selbri. It is also possible to put more than one sumti before the selbri, without changing the order of sumti:

Example 2.16 del` ins` throughdel` ins` Example 2.18 del` ins` mean the same thing. Usually, placing more than one sumti before the selbri is done for style or for emphasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.)

del` ins` If there are no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 sumti value is equivalent todel` ins` zo'e ;del` ins` i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore not given. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from del`x2ins`x _ins`ins`2 .

when the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 is omitted, becomes:

Omitting the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an observative, because it is often used when someone first observes or takes note of the relationship, and wishes to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives includedel` ins` “ Smoke! ” del` ins` upon seeing smoke or smelling the odor, ordel` ins` “ Car! ” del` ins` to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be used as an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri.

The worddel` ins` cu del` ins` does not occur in an observative;del` ins` cu del` ins` is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate fordel` ins` cu del` ins` to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri,del` ins` cu del` ins` is not permitted. Short words likedel` ins` cu del` ins` which serve grammatical functions are calleddel` ins` cmavo del` ins` in Lojban.

del` ins` For one reason or another you may want to change the order, placing one particular sumti at the front of the bridi. The cmavodel` ins` se , when placed before the last word of the selbri, will switch the meanings of the first and second sumti places. So

has the same meaning as

del` ins` The cmavodel` ins` te ,del` ins` when used in the same location, switches the meanings of the first and the third sumti places.

has the same meaning as

Note that only the first and third sumti have switched places; the second sumti has remained in the second place.

del` ins` The cmavodel` ins` ve del` ins` anddel` ins` xe del` ins` switch the first and fourth sumti places, and the first and fifth sumti places, respectively. These changes in the order of places are known asdel` ins` “ conversions ” ,del` ins` and thedel` ins` se ,del` ins` te ,del` ins` ve ,del` ins` anddel` ins` xe del` ins` cmavo are said to convert the selbri.

More than one of these operators may be used on a given selbri at one time, and in such a case they are evaluated from left to right. However, in practice they are used one at a time, as there are better tools for complex manipulation of the sumti places. Seedel` ins` Section 9.4 del` ins` for details.

del` ins` The effect is similar to what in English is called thedel` ins` “ passive voice ” . In Lojban, the converted selbri has a new place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs such asdel` ins` le selbri [ku] del` ins` (seedel` ins` Section 2.10 ).

del` ins` People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. The sentences (usually, but not always, bridi) in an utterance are separated by the cmavodel` ins` ni'o del` ins` anddel` ins` ins`.i . These correspond to a brief pause (or nothing at all) in spoken English, and the various punctuation marks like period, question mark, and exclamation mark in written English. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken for a trailing sumti of the previous sentence.

The cmavodel` ins` ni'o del` ins` separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indicated by multipledel` ins` ni'o del` ins` s, with perhapsdel` ins` ni'oni'oni'o del` ins` used to indicate a chapter,del` ins` ni'oni'o del` ins` to indicate a section, and a singledel` ins` ni'o del` ins` to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph.

The cmavodel` ins` ins`.i del` ins` separates sentences. It is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. (The cmavodel` ins` xu ,del` ins` discussed indel` ins` Section 2.15 ,del` ins` is one such word – it turns the sentence from a statement to a question about truth.) When more than one person is talking, a new speaker will usually omit thedel` ins` ins`.i del` ins` even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic.

It is still O.K. for a new speaker to say thedel` ins` ins`.i del` ins` before continuing; indeed, it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible that the second speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation fordel` ins` ins`.i del` ins` is thedel` ins` “ and ” del` ins` used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally:del` ins` “ I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ... ” .

del` ins` When two gismu are adjacent, the first one modifies the second, and the selbri takes its place structure from the rightmost word. Such combinations of gismu are calleddel` ins` tanru . For example,

has the place structure

del` ins` When three or more gismu are in a row, the first modifies the second, and that combined meaning modifies the third, and that combined meaning modifies the fourth, and so on. For example

has the place structure

That is, it is a shoe that is worn by a fast talker rather than a shoe that is fast and is also worn by a talker.

Note especially the use ofdel` ins` “ type-of ” del` ins` as a mechanism for connecting the English translations of the two or more gismu; this convention helps the learner understand each tanru in its context. Creative interpretations are also possible, however:

del` ins` most probably refers to shoes suitable for runners, but might be interpreted in some imaginative instances asdel` ins` “ shoes that run (by themselves?) ” . In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings. Thus

would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, unlike the English idiom, and a

del` ins` must always be del`anins`a del`insectins`moth del`withins`or del`largeins`a del`brightly-colored wings, of the family del` ins`del`Lepidoptera del` ins`butterfly.

del` ins` The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure ofdel` ins` klama :

del` ins` With the conversiondel` ins` se klama del` ins` as the final component of the tanru, the place structure of the entire selbri is that ofdel` ins` se klama :del` ins` the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 place is the destination, and the del`x2ins`x _ins`ins`2 place is the one who goes:

del` ins` The following example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though:

has the place structure ofdel` ins` tavla ,del` ins` but note the two distinct interpretations.

Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order:

and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations.

Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is converted, and so less drastic variation in possible meanings:

and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty.

del` ins` Often we wish to talk about things other than the speaker, the listener and things we can point to. Let's say I want to talk about a talker other thandel` ins` mi . What I want to talk about would naturally fit into the first place ofdel` ins` tavla . Lojban, it turns out, has an operator that pulls this first place out of a selbri and converts it to a sumti called adel` ins` “ description sumti ” . The description sumtidel` ins` le tavla ku del` ins` meansdel` ins` “ the talker ” ,del` ins` and may be used wherever any sumti may be used.

For example,

means the same as

wheredel` ins` “ the talker ” del` ins` is presumably someone other than me, though not necessarily.

Similarlydel` ins` le sutra tavla ku del` ins` isdel` ins` “ the fast talker ” ,del` ins` anddel` ins` le sutra te tavla ku del` ins` isdel` ins` “ the fast subject of talk ” del` ins` ordel` ins` “ the subject of fast talk ” . Which of these related meanings is understood will depend on the context in which the expression is used. The most plausible interpretation within the context will generally be assumed by a listener to be the intended one.

In many cases the worddel` ins` ku del` ins` may be omitted. In particular, it is never necessary in a description at the end of a sentence, so:

means exactly the same thing asdel` ins` Example 2.38 .

del` ins` There is a problem when we want to saydel` ins` “ The fast one is talking. ” del` ins` Thedel` ins` “ obvious ” del` ins` translationdel` ins` le sutra tavla del` ins` turns out to meandel` ins` “ the fast talker ” ,del` ins` and has no selbri at all. To solve this problem we can use the worddel` ins` cu ,del` ins` which so far has always been optional, in front of the selbri.

The worddel` ins` cu del` ins` has no meaning, and exists only to mark the beginning of the selbri within the bridi, separating it from a previous sumti. It comes before any other part of the selbri, including other cmavo likedel` ins` se del` ins` ordel` ins` te . Thus:

del` ins` Consider the following more complex example, with two description sumti.

The sumtidel` ins` le vecnu del` ins` contains the selbridel` ins` vecnu ,del` ins` which has thedel` ins` “ seller ” del` ins` in the del`x1ins`x _ins`ins`1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particulardel` ins` “ seller ” del` ins` that the speaker has in mind (one that he or she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described usingdel` ins` le del` ins` to markdel` ins` blari'o ,del` ins` a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green.

It is safe to omit both occurrences ofdel` ins` ku del` ins` indel` ins` Example 2.45 ,del` ins` and it is also safe to omit thedel` ins` cu .

del` ins` The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by itself express a selbri relation is called adel` ins` brivla . The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and fu'ivla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammatical uses. So far, most of our selbri have been gismu or tanru built from gismu.

del` ins` gismu:

del` ins` lujvo:

del` ins` fu'ivla:

del` ins` Some cmavo may also serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these isdel` ins` go'i ,del` ins` which represents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context:

del` ins` In English, I might saydel` ins` “ The dog is beautiful ” , and you might replydel` ins` “ This pleases me. ” del` ins` How do you know whatdel` ins` “ this ” del` ins` refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English:

The following three sentences all might translate asdel` ins` “ This pleases me. ”

Example 2.53 del` ins` uses one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. It is common to writedel` ins` la'edi'u del` ins` as a single word; it is used more often thandel` ins` di'u del` ins` by itself.

“ Possession ” del` ins` refers to the concept of specifying an object by saying who it belongs to (or with). A full explanation of Lojban possession is given indel` ins` Chapter 8 . A simple means of expressing possession, however, is to place a sumti representing the possessor of an object within the description sumti that refers to the object: specifically, between thedel` ins` le del` ins` and the selbri of the description:

del` ins` In Lojban, possession doesn't necessarily mean ownership: one maydel` ins` “ possess ” del` ins` a chair simply by sitting on it, even though it actually belongs to someone else. English uses possession casually in the same way, but also uses it to refer to actual ownership or even more intimate relationships:del` ins` “ my arm ” del` ins` doesn't meandel` ins` “ some arm I own ” del` ins` but ratherdel` ins` “ the arm that is part of my body ” . Lojban has methods of specifying all these different kinds of possession precisely and easily.

del` ins` You may call someone's attention to the fact that you are addressing them by usingdel` ins` doi del` ins` followed by their name. The sentence

meansdel` ins` “ Oh, John, I'm talking to you ” . It also has the effect of setting the value ofdel` ins` do ;del` ins` do del` ins` now refers todel` ins` “ John ” del` ins` until it is changed in some way in the conversation. Note thatdel` ins` Example 2.55 del` ins` is not a bridi, but it is a legitimate Lojban sentence nevertheless; it is known as adel` ins` “ vocative phrase ” .

del` ins` Other cmavo can be used instead ofdel` ins` doi del` ins` in a vocative phrase, with a different significance. For example, the cmavodel` ins` coi del` ins` meansdel` ins` “ hello ” del` ins` anddel` ins` co'o del` ins` meansdel` ins` “ good-bye ” . Either word may stand alone, they may follow one another, or either may be followed by a del`pause and ains`Lojbanized nameins` surrounded by pauses.del` (Vocative phrases with ins`ins`del`doi del` do not need a pause before the name.)