The
Elements of Style

by

William Strunk, Jr.

Professor of English
Cornell University

Privately PrintedRevised

by

John Woldemar Cowan

Copyright © 2006
Ithaca, New York
1918by John Cowan

Copyright
1918
By William Strunk, Jr.Based on the 1918 public domain version

Press of W. P. Humphrey, Geneva, N.Y.

 Published on the Internet at http://vrici.lojban.org/~cowan/style-revised.html

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License.

1st edition

Contents

I. Introductory

II. Elementary Rules of Usage

1. Form the possessive of singular of nouns with 's

.
2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last

.
3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas

.
4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause

.
5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma

.
6. Do not break sentences in two

.
7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject

.
8. Divide Hyphenate words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation dictionaries and pronunciationspelling-checkers

.

III. Elementary Principles of Composition

9. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic

.
10. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity with the beginning

11. Use the active voice

.
12. Put statements in positive form

.
13. Omit needless words

.
14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences

.
15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form

.
16. Keep related words together

.
17. In summaries, keep to one tense

.
18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

.

IV. A Few Matters of Form

V. Words and Expressions Commonly Misused

The abbreviation etc., even if only a single term comes before it, is always preceded by a comma.

Use a semicolon in place of a comma if any of the terms itself contains a comma.

3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.

The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.

This rule is sometimes difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide to decide whether a single word, word such as however, or a brief phrase, phrase is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but very slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the interruption be is slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma and leave the other. Such punctuation as

Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,

or

My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,

is indefensible.

Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with this rule, set off by commas.

The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.

Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly punctuated.

In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.

Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.

In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are non-restrictive; they do not limit the application of the words on which they depend, but add, parenthetically, statements supplementing those in the principal clauses. Each sentence is a combination of two statements which might have been made independently.

The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested.

Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.

Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at Nether Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles from Bridgewater.

Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.

The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.

In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application of the word candidate to a single person. Unlike those above, the sentence cannot be split into two independent statements.

The abbreviations etcetc.. and jr.Jr. are always preceded by a comma, and comma and, except at the end of a sentence, followed by one.

Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence. The sentences quoted in this section and under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18 should afford sufficient guidance.

If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it.

He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile.

4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause.

The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.

Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an after-thought. Further, Furthermore, and,and is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:

As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.

Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:

Owing to Because of the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.

But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).

Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of and at the same time) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.

If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma comma is needed after the the conjunction.

The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape.

For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the next section.

5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.

If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.

If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).

Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.

Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.required:

At that moment they heard a door slam; then feet came running along the passage.

There's five to one; besides, they all are fresh.

When the second clause begins with so, use a semicolon or a comma:

I had never been in the place before; before, so I had difficulty in finding my way about.

In general, however, it An alternative that is best, in writing, to avoid using so in this manner; there is danger that the writer who uses it at all may use it too often. A simple correction, usually usually serviceable, and always requires a comma, is to omit the word so,so and begin the first clause with as:

As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about.

If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:

Man proposes, God disposes.

The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.

Use a colon if the second clause illustrates or explains the first:

6. Do not break sentences in two.

In other words, do not use periods for instead of commas.

I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.

He She was an interesting talker. A man woman who had traveled all over the world, and lived in half a dozen countries.

In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter.

It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:

Again and again he called out. No reply.

The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will does not appear to be suspected of a mere blunder in punctuation.

Note: Rules 3, 4, 5, , and 6 cover the most important important principles in the the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature.

7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.

The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence:

He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.

Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.

Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.ludicrous:

Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.

8. Divide Hyphenate words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation dictionaries and pronunciation.

spelling-checkers.

If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, word unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, letter or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. Choose a dictionary and follow its practice, or use the hyphenation provided by your word processing program.

The principles most frequently applicable are:

a. Divide the word according same rule applies when deciding whether to its formation:

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

b. Divide "on the vowel:"

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions possible); deco-rative; presi-dent;

c. Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:

for-tune; pic-ture; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in hyphenate a number of pages of any carefully printed book.

 compound noun; compound adjectives such as "light-fingered" are always hyphenated.

III. Elementary Principles of Composition

9. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.

If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, it should be examined to see whether subdivision will not improve it.

Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is serves as a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.

The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:

A. Account of the work.

B. Critical discussion.

A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, literature class, might consist of seven paragraphs:

A. Facts of composition and publication.

B. Kind of poem; metrical form.

C. Subject.Subject matter.

D. Treatment of subject.

E. For what chiefly remarkable.Especially remarkable points.

F. Wherein How the poem is characteristic of the writer.

G. Relationship to other works.

The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its development. If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.

A novel might be discussed under the heads:

A. Setting.

B. Plot.

C. Characters.

D. Purpose.Theme.

A historical event might be discussed under the heads:

A. What led up to the event.

B. Account of the event.

C. What the event led up to.followed the event.

In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given.

As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of for sentences of transition, transition indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument.

In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The application of this rule, rule when dialogue and narrative are combined, combined is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction.

10. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence; end it in conformity with the beginning.

Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice recommended here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it, at its beginning, and to retain the purpose in mind as he ends it. until its end. For this reason, the the most generally useful kind of paragraph, paragraph, particularly in exposition and and argument, is that in which

1. the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;
2. the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the statement made in the topic sentence; and
3. the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence.

Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly to be avoided.

If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (again; therefore; for the same reason) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.

According to Depending on the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the converse, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes.

Another example:

In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow.

The breeze served us admirably.

The campaign opened with a series of reverses.

The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.

But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned.

At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.

He She picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.

Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.

The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.

11. Use the active active voice.

The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:

I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.

This is much better than

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.

The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me,"

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,remembered.

it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember this visit?

This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.

The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day. today.

Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.

The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used.

The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible forceful writing. This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive verb, whenever possible in the active voice voice, for some such such perfunctory expression as there is, or could be heard.

As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.

In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first.

A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence.

Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the predicate "was prohibited" expresses something not implied in "export."

12. Put statements in positive positive form.

Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.

The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention.

All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he not, and wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express a choose an inherently negative in positive form.adjective verb or adjective rather than using not.

However, some words have no natural negative forms, and the writer must beware of sacrificing precision to concision: it is a distortion of the truth to claim that a witness in court forgot, when what he said was "I do not remember."

The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:

Not charity, but simple justice.

Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.

Negative words other than not are usually strong:

The sun never sets set upon the British flag.Empire.

13. Omit needless needless words.

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, words and a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his all sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects the subject only in outline, or even use a style entirely free of verbal ornament — but that every word tell.

Many expressions in common use violate this principle:

In especial particular, the expression the fact that should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.

See also under case, character, nature, system in Chapter V.

Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous.

As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.

A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences which might to with advantage be combined into one.

14. Avoid a succession of loose loose sentences.

This rule refers especially in particular to loose sentences of a particular certain type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable are acceptable (see under Rule 4), a series of them soon becomes monotonous and tedious.

An unskilful unskillful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but, and less frequently, who, which, when, where, and while, these last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).

The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme program will be presented.

Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is bad because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 10, or in any piece of good English prose, such as the preface (Before the Curtain) to Vanity Fair.

If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he enough of them should be recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever clauses — whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.

15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar similar form.

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.

The unskilful unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should it is wise or elegant to constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he it, there may have be a need to vary its form. For form; for an illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 10. But apart from this, he the writer should follow the principle of parallel construction.

The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems timid, unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his a choice and abided by stuck with it.

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13.

It may be asked, what asked: What if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write there be twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he it will probably find be found that the difficulty is imaginary, that his the twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he the principle need apply the principle be applied only within each group. Otherwise he the writer had best avoid the difficulty by putting his the statements in the form of a table.

16. Keep related words together.

The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The Therefore, the writer must therefore, so as far as possible, possible bring together the words, words and groups of words, words that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.

The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning.beginning or end.

The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause. This objection, however, does not usually hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. a noun phrase. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).

The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its antecedent.

If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.

A noun in apposition phrase may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.

The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs

Modifiers should come, if possible next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong incorrect or misleading relation is suggested.

17. In summaries, keep to one tense.

In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he the past tense may use the past if he prefers. be better. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent preceding action should be be expressed by the present perfect; if in the past, by by the past perfect.

An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Juliet, meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the nondelivery of the letter.that the letter has not been delivered.

But whichever tense be is used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question speech remains unchanged.

The Legate inquires who struck the blow.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he is chosen should use be used throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).

In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating inserting such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker added," "the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or the like. He The writer should indicate clearly at the outset, once and for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.

In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary in elementary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their their own words. But But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the the writer should be be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He It may find it be necessary to devote devote one or two sentences to indicating the the subject, or the opening situation, situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite under discussion; and numerous details may be cited in order to illustrate its qualities. But he should the writer should aim to write an an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a a summary with occasional occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his the discussion includes a number of of works, he the writer will as a rule do better better not to take them up singly singly in chronological order, but to aim from from the beginning at establishing establishing general conclusions.

18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at at the end.

The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end of the sentence.

The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in in the sentence, as it is in the the second example.

The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement.

Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.

With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourselves unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphatic when placed first.

Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.

So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, seem at first sight, sight like works of nature.

A subject coming appearing first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,sentence

Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.

Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.

IV. A Few Matters of Form

Headings. Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.

Numerals. Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, numerals, as may be appropriate.appropriate. Use a comma between the day and the year.

Parentheses. A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis parentheses is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, punctuated exactly as if the expression in parenthesis expression were absent. absent. The expression within the parentheses is punctuated as if if it stood by itself, except except that the final stop is omitted unless unless it is a question mark or an an exclamation point.

I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.

He She declares (and why should we doubt his her good faith?) that he she is now certain of success.

(When a wholly detached expression or complete sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of right parenthesis.)

Dashes. Dashes may be used in pairs in the same way as parentheses, except that dashes emphasize rather than minimize the impact of their contents. No punctuation mark (other than a question point or exclamation mark, if required by the set-off material) is used adjacent to a dash. Singly, dashes should be avoided except to indicate an abrupt change in thought:

I was hoping that you might — no, never mind.

Quotations. Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state."

Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.

I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come."

Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of nature."

Quotations of more than one sentence, or an entire line, line or more, of verse, more of verse, are begun on a a fresh line and centred, centered, but not enclosed in quotation marks.marks. The preceding sentence ends with a colon.

Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven!

Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.

Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks.

These are the times that try men's souls.

He lives far from the madding crowd.

The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.

Question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation, outside if they do not. The same logical rule may be employed for commas and periods, and commonly is outside the United States, but U.S. publishers continue to adhere to the older rule that places commas and periods inside the quotation marks always.

References. In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. Use a stylebook such as the MLA Handbook or the Chicago Manual of Style to learn the precise form of references.

As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis parentheses or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words act, scene, line, book, volume, page, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.

Titles. For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers books, plays, movies, television series, etc., use italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or capital letters. For short poems, individual chapters, articles, or episodes, use quotation marks without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. italics. Omit initial A or The from titles titles when you place the possessive before them.

The Iliad;Iliad, the OdysseyOdyssey,; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes; It, "To a Skylark," "Self-Reliance," A Tale of Two Cities; Dicken's Dickens's Tale of Two Cities.

V. Words and Expressions Commonly Misused

(Many of the words and expressions here listed are not so much bad much bad English as bad style, the commonplaces of careless writing. As illustrated under Featurefeature, the proper below, the proper correction is likely to be not the replacement of one word word or set of of words by another, but the replacement of vague generality by definite by definite statement.)

Advice, advise. Advice is a noun, advise a verb.

All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other uses better avoided. Always to be written as two words.

Allusion. An allusion differs from a reference by not naming or describing the person or thing referred to. Saying "We'll always have Paris" alludes, but does not refer, to Casablanca. However, the distinction is often fine and sometimes invisible.

And which, and who. Avoid these forms unless another relative clause precedes. In "These are dangerous animals, and which must be kept in cages", simply omit and.

As good or better than. Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

As to whether. Whether is sufficient; see under Rule 13.

Bid. Takes the infinitive without to. The past tense may be bid or bade.

But, preposition. But may be used as a conjunction or as a preposition: "Everyone but me had already left." This usage is bade.found in all good writers continuously since Old English times, and is condemned only by the falsely learnèd.

Case. The Expressions using Concise Oxford Dictionarycase begins its definition of this word: "instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs." In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary. should be carefully scrutinized, with the exceptions of the fixed phrases in any case, (just) in case, in case of, and in that case. Often they are long-winded, superfluous, or both, and may be replaced with great advantage.

See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68-71, and Quiller-Couch, The Art of Writing, pp. 103-106.

Certainly. Used indiscriminately by some speakers, much as others use very, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.

Character. Often Sometimes simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.redundant.

Claim, vb. With object-noun, means lay claim to. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: "He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir." (But even here, "claimed to be" would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for declare, maintain, or charge.

Compare. To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances, resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences, differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.

Clever.Continual, continuous. This word has been greatly overused; it It is useful to distinguish between what is best restricted continuous, and goes on without a break from beginning to ingenuity displayed end; and what is continual, and is either always going on, or else repeats at short intervals and does not necessarily come to an end.

Effect, affect. Effect is a noun meaning "result"; affect is a verb meaning "influence." (There is an uncommon verb effect meaning "bring about, accomplish", a rare verb affect meaning "pretend to" (now usually only in the form affected), and a technical noun affect meaning "expression of emotion"; avoid all of them in small matters.

Consider. Not followed by ordinary writing.)

asEffect when it means, "believe to be." "I consider him thoroughly competent." Compare, "The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator," where "considered" means "examined" or "discussed."

Dependable. A needless substitute for reliable, trustworthy.

Due to. Incorrectly used for through, because of, or owing to, in adverbial phrases: "He lost the first game, due to carelessness." In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: "This invention is due to Edison;" "losses due to preventable fires."

Effect. As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring about, accomplish (not to be confused with affect, which means "to influence").

As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale green;" "very delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a charming effect was produced by." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.

Etc. Not to be used of persons. Equivalent Equivalent to and the rest, rest, and so forth, and hence not to be used if one one of these would be be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left left in doubt as to any about any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.

At the end of a list introduced by such as, as, for example, or or any similar expression, etc. is incorrect.and its synonyms are unnecessary.

Fact. Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they may be, are not properly facts.

On the formula the fact that, see under Rule 13.

Factor.Factor, feature. A hackneyed word; Greatly overused words; the expressions of which it forms they form part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.

Feature. Another hackneyed word; like factor it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.

As a verb, in the advertising sense of

Formerly, formally. offer Formerly means "before the present"; formally means "ceremoniously", or sometimes "according to form".

He, he or she, they. The usage of these words after indefinite expressions such as a special attraction,everyone or anyone presents an insoluble problem. He is sexist or even impossible: no one says "Either the man or the wife shot himself", though either is also an indefinite expression. He or she is clumsy, and intolerably so when it must be repeated. They has been used by all English writers from Chaucer's time to this, but it is very often condemned as ungrammatical by those who are, or seem to be, unaware of this plain fact.

The writer may either reword the expression, often by using the passive voice (which itself may be avoided.subject to condemnation), or else choose one of the three alternatives and accept the accompanying criticisms.

Fix. Colloquial in America for arrange, prepare, mend. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, fasten, make firm or immovable, etc.

He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.

However. In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its sentence or clause.

When however comes first, it means in whatever way or to whatever extent.

However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.

However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute for rather (before adjectives and verbs), or verbs) or, except in familiar casual style, for something like (before nouns). Restrict it to Best used in its literal sense: "Amber is a kind of fossil resin;" "I dislike that kind of notoriety." The same holds true of sort of.

Write "that kind of man", not "that kind of a man."

Lay. Distinguish clearly between lay, the present tense of the verb meaning "set down", and lay, the past tense of the verb lie meaning "recline". Of course, the verb lie meaning "to intentionally tell a falsehood" has the past tense lied.

Less. Should not be misused for The use of fewer.less

Less refers to quantity, sense of fewer to number. "His has been standard throughout the history of English. Sometimes, however, a distinction is necessary. "His troubles are less less than mine" means "His troubles are not so as great as mine." "His as mine", whereas "His troubles are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous not as numerous as mine." It is, however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less than a hundred, "where the round number, a hundred, is something like a collective noun, and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.

Line, along these lines. Line in the sense of course of procedure, conduct, thought, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase along these lines, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

Literal, literally. Often incorrectly As a metaphor for emphasis, no worse than any other metaphor, despite the frequent insistence of the ignorant that "literally" must always be used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.

literally.

Lose out. Meant to be more emphatic than lose, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of try out, win out, sign up, register up. With a number of verbs, out and up form idiomatic combinations: find out, run out, turn out, cheer up, dry up, make up, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb. Lose out is not.

Most. Not to be used for almost.

Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character.

Often vaguely used in such expressions as "a lover of nature;" "poems about nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.

Near by.Of. Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it. Near, or near at hand, is as good, if not better.

Not to be used in place of have, as an adjective; use in neighboring.should of.

Oftentimes, ofttimes. Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is often.

One hundred and one. Retain the and in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.

One of the most. Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, "One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;" is" or "Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe." There is nothing wrong in with this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.

People. The people is a political term, not to be confused with the public. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.

The word insistence that only peoplepersons is not to be used with words of number, in place the plural of persons.person If of "six people" five went away, how many "people" would be left? is obsolete except in legal writing; write "one person", "two people", as is natural.

Phase. Means a stage of transition or development: "the phases of the moon;" "the last phase." Not to be used for aspect or topic.

Possess. Not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own.

Respective, respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage.

In some kinds of formal writing, as in geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use respectively, but it should need not appear in writing on ordinary subjects.

So. Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: "so good;" "so warm;" "so delightful."

On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.

Sort of. See under Kind of.

.

State. Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark. Restrict it to the sense of express fully or clearly, as, "He as in "She refused to state his her objections."

Student body. A needless and awkward expression, meaning no more than the simple word students.

System. Frequently used without need.

Thanking you in advance. This sounds as if the writer meant, "It will not be worth my while to write to you again." Simply write, "Thanking you," and if the favor which you have requested is granted, write a letter of acknowledgment.

They. A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one, everybody, every one, many a man, which, though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody, any one, somebody, some one, the intention being either to avoid the awkward "he or she," or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, "A friend of mine told me that they, etc."

Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine.

Very. Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves.

Viewpoint. Write point of view, but do not misuse this, as many do, for view or opinion.

While. Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and, but,and and or although.but. Many writers so use it it frequently as a substitute for and or but, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, connective or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.

Its use as a virtual an equivalent of although is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.

While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.

This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,

I admire his energy; at the same time time, I wish it were employed in a better cause.

Compare:

The paraphrase,

The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly,chilly.

shows why the this use of while is incorrect.unfortunate.

In general, the writer will do well to use be safer using while only with strict literalness, in in the sense of during the time that.

Whom. Often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb.

Worth while.Worthwhile. Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with not) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: "Is it worth while worthwhile to telegraph?"

The use of worth while before a noun ("a worth while story") is indefensible.

Would. A conditional statement in the first person requires should, not would.

I should not have succeeded without his help.

The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is should, not would.

He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.

To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without would, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.

VI. Words Often Misspelled

Write to-day, to-night, to-morrow (but not together) with hyphen.

Write any one, every one, some one, some time (except the sense of formerly) as two words.

THE END